GW501516 raises a handful of sensible questions. This page answers them in order, starting with the fundamentals and moving to applications.
This page was last updated on 2025-05-31 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
Cardarine is frequently described as a fat-burning or endurance-enhancing supplement, but these claims exceed the available evidence. The compound is not a hormone, steroid, or selective androgen receptor modulator. Research articles discuss it as a tool compound for studying PPARδ biology, while anti-doping literature focuses on its abuse and detection. Quality of unapproved products is uncertain, and independent analyses have found impurities or incorrect labeling. Open questions include whether human cancer risk resembles that seen in rodents and how often non-athletes use the substance.
Cardarine has no approved therapeutic indication and is not marketed as a medicine. The World Anti-Doping Agency lists GW501516 as a prohibited substance at all times, covering both in-competition and out-of-competition periods. National laws vary: some countries treat it as an unapproved drug subject to import controls, while others have specific restrictions on sale for human consumption. It is often sold as a research chemical, a label that does not imply safety or legality. Enforcement actions have targeted online vendors and shipments.
The pharmacological interest in cardarine centers on PPARδ activation and its downstream effects on lipid handling and mitochondrial function. In animal studies, PPARδ agonists have been associated with changes in exercise endurance and fatty acid utilization, though results vary by model and protocol. Human data remain sparse, and the absence of large controlled trials limits conclusions about efficacy. Researchers often describe the compound as a tool for probing PPARδ biology rather than a proven therapeutic agent.
Safety discussions about cardarine frequently cite rodent carcinogenicity findings reported in the 2000s. In those studies, treated animals developed tumors at multiple sites, leading sponsors to discontinue clinical development. The relevance of these findings to humans has not been resolved, but they are a major reason the compound is not approved. Current literature emphasizes uncertainty about long-term effects and the risks of unregulated use. Regulators and health agencies have not established a safe human exposure level.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Regulatory status | Prohibited in sport; not approved as medicine | Listed by WADA at all times. |
| Common synonyms | GW501516, GW-501516, endurobol | Cardarine is a colloquial name. |
| Typical analytical method | LC-MS/MS | Detects parent compound and metabolites. |
| Common test matrix | Urine | Blood and dried blood spots also possible. |
| Legal classification | Varies by country | Often treated as unapproved drug or research chemical. |
Regulatory bodies treat GW501516 as a prohibited substance in competitive sport. The World Anti-Doping Agency added it to the prohibited list, and it falls under classes covering metabolic modulators and hormone-related agents. It is not approved by drug regulators for human use, and it is not a lawful dietary supplement. Products sold under the cardarine name may contain unlisted ingredients or different compounds. Because no approved product exists, quality and identity are not guaranteed by pharmaceutical manufacturing standards.
Cardarine is a common name for the investigational chemical GW501516, also written GW-1516. It was developed as a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta agonist for metabolic conditions such as dyslipidemia. Early research focused on lipid handling and energy use in skeletal muscle and other tissues. The compound was never approved as a medicine. In public discussion, it is often grouped with performance-enhancing substances, although its receptor target differs from that of anabolic steroids or selective androgen receptor modulators. Regulatory and health authorities have issued warnings about its use.
Products sold as cardarine have been found to contain incorrect compounds, variable amounts, or no active ingredient at all. Independent testing is required to verify identity and purity. Common analytical approaches include high-performance liquid chromatography, mass spectrometry, and nuclear magnetic resonance for structural confirmation. These methods can distinguish GW501516 from related PPAR agonists and from unrelated steroids. For regulators and researchers, such verification is central to interpreting both biological results and adverse event reports.
Cardarine is prohibited in competitive sport under the World Anti-Doping Agency code, where it is classified as a metabolic modulator. It is not approved as a prescription medicine in the United States, European Union, or other major markets. Regulatory action has focused on its presence in sports and in products marketed as research chemicals. Because it has no accepted medical indication, supply is often unregulated. This status creates legal and safety uncertainties for anyone who encounters the substance.
PPARδ is a nuclear receptor that influences transcription of genes involved in fatty acid oxidation, lipid transport, and energy homeostasis. GW501516 binds and activates this receptor with high selectivity relative to PPARα and PPARγ in laboratory assays. Activation alters expression of target genes in skeletal muscle, liver, and adipose tissue in animal models. The exact clinical consequences of these changes in humans remain incompletely characterized, and observed effects in animals do not establish therapeutic benefit or safety.
Published studies have examined GW501516 in animal models of obesity, insulin resistance, and exercise endurance. Early human trials reportedly ended, and development was discontinued after preclinical findings raised concerns about cancer in some rodent studies. Regulatory agencies have not approved cardarine for any medical use. Its availability through non-pharmaceutical channels raises questions about identity, purity, and legal status that are separate from its laboratory pharmacology. Those questions are often addressed through analytical testing rather than assumptions about product labels.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, also GW-1516, a synthetic compound developed as a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta (PPARδ) agonist. It belongs to a class of agents that modulate gene transcription related to lipid and energy metabolism. The compound was studied in preclinical and early clinical research for metabolic and cardiovascular conditions, but it did not progress to approved therapeutic use. Its name appears in fitness and sports contexts despite not being approved as a drug.
Amitriptyline was developed by the American pharmaceutical company Merck in the late 1950s. In 1958, Merck approached several clinical investigators proposing to conduct clinical trials of amitriptyline for schizophrenia. One of these researchers, Frank Ayd, instead, suggested using amitriptyline for depression. Ayd treated 130 patients and, in 1960, reported that amitriptyline had antidepressant properties similar to another, and the only known at the time, tricyclic antidepressant imipramine. Following this, the US Food and Drug Administration approved amitriptyline for depression in 1961. In Europe, due to a quirk of the patent law at the time allowing patents only on the chemical synthesis but not on the drug itself, Roche and Lundbeck were able to independently develop and market amitriptyline in the early 1960s. According to research by a historian of psychopharmacology David Healy, amitriptyline became a much bigger selling drug than its precursor imipramine because of two factors. First, amitriptyline has a much stronger anxiolytic effect. Second, Merck conducted a marketing campaign raising clinicians' awareness of depression as a clinical entity. Amitriptyline is no longer sold under the brand name Elavil.
As mentioned above, G-proteins may terminate their own activation due to their intrinsic GTP→GDP hydrolysis capability. However, this reaction proceeds at a slow rate (≈0.02 times/sec) and, thus, it would take around 50 seconds for any single G-protein to deactivate if other factors did not come into play. Indeed, there are around 30 isoforms of RGS proteins that, when bound to Gα through their GAP domain, accelerate the hydrolysis rate to ≈30 times/sec. This 1500-fold increase in rate allows for the cell to respond to external signals with high speed, as well as spatial resolution due to limited amount of second messenger that can be generated and limited distance a G-protein can diffuse in 0.03 seconds. For the most part, the RGS proteins are promiscuous in their ability to deactivate G-proteins, while which RGS is involved in a given signaling pathway seems more determined by the tissue and GPCR involved than anything else. In addition, RGS proteins have the additional function of increasing the rate of GTP-GDP exchange at GPCRs, (i.e., as a sort of co-GEF) further contributing to the time resolution of GPCR signaling. In addition, the GPCR may be desensitized itself. This can occur as:
The Society holds an annual conference in late May or early June as well as topical conferences (at Asilomar State Beach in California and Sanibel Island, Florida) and a fall workshop, which is also focused on a single topic. Conferences on Mass Spectrometry and Allied Topics have been held yearly since 1953. International Mass Spectrometry Foundation List of female mass spectrometrists ASMS website
Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is an aggressive form of breast cancer that accounts for ten to fifteen percent of all breast cancer cases. Chemotherapy is the only viable current treatment for TNBC because the loss of target receptors inherent to the disease causes cancer cells to resist therapeutic pharmaceuticals. The three-way junction in the φ29 DNA packaging motor can help sensitize TNBC cells to chemotherapy using a siRNA drug delivery mechanism to inhibit TNBC growth and volume. This treatment can also be combined with anti-cancer drugs like Doxorubicin to enhance therapeutic effects. Bacteriophage Bacteriophage pRNA φ29 DNA polymerase
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Individual transmembrane adenylyl cyclase isoforms have been linked to numerous physiological functions. Soluble adenylyl cyclase (sAC, AC10) has a critical role in sperm motility. Adenylyl cyclase has been implicated in memory formation, functioning as a coincidence detector. AC-IV was first reported in the bacterium Aeromonas hydrophila, and the structure of the AC-IV from Yersinia pestis has been reported. These are the smallest of the AC enzyme classes; the AC-IV (CyaB) from Yersinia is a dimer of 19 kDa subunits with no known regulatory components (PDB: 2FJT). AC-IV forms a superfamily with mammalian thiamine-triphosphatase called CYTH (CyaB, thiamine triphosphatase). These forms of AC have been reported in specific bacteria (Prevotella ruminicola O68902 and Rhizobium etli Q8KY20, respectively) and have not been extensively characterized. There are a few extra members (~400 in Pfam) known to be in class VI. Class VI enzymes possess a catalytic core similar to the one in Class III.
Corin, also called atrial natriuretic peptide-converting enzyme, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CORIN gene. Human corin, a polypeptide of 1042 amino acids, consists of an N-terminal cytoplasmic domain, a transmembrane domain and an extracellular region with two frizzled-like domains, eight LDL receptor-like domains, a scavenger receptor-like domain and a C-terminal trypsin-like serine protease domain. Corin is synthesized as a zymogen that is activated by PCSK6. Corin exhibits a trypsin-like catalytic activity favoring basic residues at the P1 position. Human corin contains 19 N-glycosylation sites. N-glycans promote corin expression on the cell surface and protect corin from metalloproteinase-mediated shedding.
The Oddo–Harkins rule holds that elements with even atomic numbers are more common than those with odd atomic numbers, with the exception of hydrogen and beryllium. This rule argues that elements with odd atomic numbers have one unpaired proton and are more likely to capture another, thus increasing their atomic number. In elements with even atomic numbers, protons are paired, with each member of the pair offsetting the spin of the other, enhancing stability. All the alkali metals have odd atomic numbers and they are not as common as the elements with even atomic numbers adjacent to them (the noble gases and the alkaline earth metals) in the Solar System. The heavier alkali metals are also less abundant than the lighter ones as the alkali metals from rubidium onward can only be synthesised in supernovae and not in stellar nucleosynthesis. Lithium is also much less abundant than sodium and potassium as it is poorly synthesised in both Big Bang nucleosynthesis and in stars: the Big Bang could only produce trace quantities of lithium, beryllium and boron due to the absence of a stable nucleus with 5 or 8 nucleons, and stellar nucleosynthesis could only pass this bottleneck by the triple-alpha process, fusing three helium nuclei to form carbon, and skipping over those three elements.
Amazon services include its digital assistant Alexa, Amazon Music, and Prime Video for music and videos respectively, the Amazon Appstore for Android apps. Audible provides audiobooks for purchase and listening. RXPass is a US prescription drug delivery service. US Amazon Prime members can pay a $5 monthly fee for access to 60 medications. Beneficiaries of government healthcare programs such as Medicare and Medicaid are not eligible. Amazon Live is an e-commerce live-streaming service. The service allows promoters to stream live videos promoting or sponsoring products. Promoters (mainly celebrities or Internet influencers) can add tags to add context. Other users can watch and send messages to a global chat for any stream. In 2023 roughly a billion total viewers watched streams in the US and India. The platform is integrated into Amazon Freevee and Amazon Prime Video.
Chemistry... Key to Better Living. Diamond Jubilee Volume: A Record of Chemical Progress During the First 75 Years of the American Chemical Society. American Chemical Society. 1951. Skolnik, Herman; Reese, Kenneth M., eds. (1976). A Century of chemistry: the role of chemists and the American Chemical Society. Washington, D.C.: American Chemical Society. ISBN 978-0841203075. J. J. Bohning 2001. American Chemical Society Founded 1876. ACS, Washington, D.C. Reese, Kenneth M., ed. (2002). The American Chemical Society at 125: A recent history 1976–2001. American Chemical Society. ISBN 978-0-8412-3851-0. ACS website ACS Publications website ACS Chemical & Engineering News ACS Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) International Year of Chemistry 2011(archived) A Cauldron Bubbles: PubChem and the American Chemical Society — Information Today, June 2005 ACS Chemical Biology WIKI(archived) ACS Chemical Biology Community(archived) ACS Green Chemistry Institute ACS Organic Division Leete Award Gassman Award
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Acids are fundamental reagents in treating almost all processes in modern industry. Sulfuric acid, a diprotic acid, is the most widely used acid in industry, and is also the most-produced industrial chemical in the world. It is mainly used in producing fertilizer, detergent, batteries and dyes, as well as used in processing many products such like removing impurities. According to the statistics data in 2011, the annual production of sulfuric acid was around 200 million tonnes in the world. For example, phosphate minerals react with sulfuric acid to produce phosphoric acid for the production of phosphate fertilizers, and zinc is produced by dissolving zinc oxide into sulfuric acid, purifying the solution and electrowinning. In the chemical industry, acids react in neutralization reactions to produce salts. For example, nitric acid reacts with ammonia to produce ammonium nitrate, a fertilizer. Additionally, carboxylic acids can be esterified with alcohols, to produce esters. Acids are often used to remove rust and other corrosion from metals in a process known as pickling. They may be used as an electrolyte in a wet cell battery, such as sulfuric acid in a car battery.
Once active, Akt translocates from the plasma membrane to the cytosol and nucleus, where many of its substrates reside. Akt regulates a wide range of proteins by phosphorylation. Akt target substrates contain a minimum consensus sequence R-X-R-X-X-[Ser/Thr]-Hyd, where Hyd is a hydrophobic amino acid, although other factors such as sub-cellular localisation and 3-dimensional structure are important. Phosphorylation by Akt can be inhibitory or stimulatory, either suppressing or enhancing the activity of target proteins.
Carnitine is an essential cofactor for mitochondrial transport of long‑chain fatty acids (a major lipid class) into the matrix for β‑oxidation. gamma-aminobutyric acid is a neurotransmitter. 5-HTP (5-hydroxytryptophan) is used for experimental treatment of depression. L-DOPA (L-dihydroxyphenylalanine) for Parkinson's treatment, Eflornithine inhibits ornithine decarboxylase and used in the treatment of sleeping sickness. Canavanine, an analogue of arginine found in many legumes is an antifeedant, protecting the plant from predators. Mimosine found in some legumes, is another possible antifeedant. This compound is an analogue of tyrosine and can poison animals that graze on these plants. However, not all of the functions of other abundant nonstandard amino acids are known.
Angiogenesis, the formation of new blood vessels, is often critical for tumour cells to survive and grow in nutrient-depleted conditions. Akt is activated downstream of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in endothelial cells in the lining of blood vessels, promoting survival and growth. Akt also contributes to angiogenesis by activating endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), which increases production of nitric oxide (NO). This stimulates vasodilation and vascular remodelling. Signaling through the PI3K-Akt pathway increases translation of hypoxia-inducible factor α (HIF1α and HIF2α) transcription factors via mTOR. HIF promotes gene expression of VEGF and glycolytic enzymes, allowing metabolism in oxygen-depleted environments.
In order for a protonated acid to lose a proton, the pH of the system must rise above the pKa of the acid. The decreased concentration of H+ in that basic solution shifts the equilibrium towards the conjugate base form (the deprotonated form of the acid). In lower-pH (more acidic) solutions, there is a high enough H+ concentration in the solution to cause the acid to remain in its protonated form. Solutions of weak acids and salts of their conjugate bases form buffer solutions. To determine the concentration of an acid in an aqueous solution, an acid–base titration is commonly performed. A strong base solution with a known concentration, usually NaOH or KOH, is added to neutralize the acid solution according to the color change of the indicator with the amount of base added. The titration curve of an acid titrated by a base has two axes, with the base volume on the x-axis and the solution's pH value on the y-axis. The pH of the solution always goes up as the base is added to the solution.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Legal status varies by country. It is not approved as a medicine, and it is prohibited in sport. Some jurisdictions restrict import, sale, or possession.
Laboratories use liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry to detect GW501516 and its metabolites. Urine is commonly tested, and testing can occur in and out of competition.
No, cardarine is not a SARM. It is a PPARδ agonist, which acts on a different receptor. The two classes are often confused in online discussions.
Cardarine is an investigational synthetic compound that acts as a PPARδ agonist. It is also known as GW501516 and has been studied mainly in preclinical research. It is not an approved medicine.